WagesThe
earliest mention of wages is of a recompense, not in money, but in
kind, to Jacob from Laban. (Genesis 29:15,20; 30:28; 31:7,8,41) In
Egypt money payments by way of wages were in use, but the terms cannot
now be ascertained. (Exodus 2:9) The only mention of the rate of wages
in Scripture is found in the parable of the householder and the
vineyard, (Matthew 20:2) where the laborer's wages was set at one
denarius per day, probably 15 to 17 cents, a sum which may be fairly
taken as equivalent to the denarius, and to the usual pay of a soldier
(ten asses per diem) in the later days of the Roman republic. Tac. Ann.
i. 17; Polyb. vi. 39. In earlier times it is probable that the rate was
lower; but it is likely that laborers, and also soldiers, were supplied
with provisions. The law was very strict in requiring daily payment of
wages. (Leviticus 19:13; 24:14,15) The employer who refused to give
his-laborers sufficient victuals is censured (Job 22:11) and the
iniquity of withholding wages is denounced. (Jeremiah 22:13; Malachi
3:5; James 6:4)
WagonThe
Oriental wagon, or arabah, is a vehicle composed of two or three planks
fixed on two solid circular blocks of wood from two to five feet in
diameter, which serve as wheels. For the conveyance of passengers,
mattresses or clothes are laid in the bottom and the vehicle is drawn
by buffaloes or oxen. [[1278]Cart and [1279]Chariot]
WallsOnly
a few points need be noticed.
+The practice common in Palestine of carrying foundations down to the
solid rock, as in the case of the temple, with structures intended to
be permanent. (Luke 6:48)
+A feature of some parts of Solomon's buildings, as described by
Josephus, corresponds remarkably to the method adopted at Nineveh of
incrusting or veneering a wall of brick or stone with slabs of a more
costly material, as marble or alabaster.
+Another use of walls in Palestine is to support mountain roads Or
terraces formed on the sides of hills for purposes of cultivation.
+The "path of the vineyards," (Numbers 22:24) is a pathway through
vineyards, with walls on each side.
Wandering
In The Wilderness[[1280]Wilderness
Of The Wandering OF THE WANDERING]
WarThe
most important topic in connection with war is the formation of the
army which is destined to carry it on. [[1281]Army] In (1 Kings 9:22)
at a period (Solomon's reign) when the organization of the army was
complete, we have apparently a list of the various gradations of rank
in the service, as follows:
+"Men of war" = privates ;
+"servants," the lowest rank of officers--lieutenants ;
+"princes" = captains ;
+"captains," perhaps = staff officers ;
+"rulers of the chariots and his horsemen" = cavalry officers . Formal
proclamations of war were not interchanged between the belligerents.
Before entering the enemy's district spies were seat to ascertain the
character of the country and the preparations of its inhabitants for
resistance. (Numbers 13:17; Joshua 2:1; Judges 7:10; 1 Samuel 26:4) The
combat assumed the form of a number of hand-to-hand contests; hence the
high value attached to fleetness of foot and strength of arm. (2 Samuel
1:23; 2:18; 1 Chronicles 12:8) At the same time various strategic
devices were practiced, such as the ambuscade, (Joshua 8:2,12; Judges
20:36) surprise, (Judges 7:16) or circumvention. (2 Samuel 5:23)
Another mode of settling the dispute was by the selection of champions,
(1 Samuel 17; 2 Samuel 2:14) who were spurred on to exertion by the
offer of high reward. (1 Samuel 17:25; 18:25; 2 Samuel 18:11; 1
Chronicles 11:6) The contest having been decided, the conquerors were
recalled from the pursuit by the sound of a trumpet. (2 Samuel 2:28;
18:16; 20:22) The siege of a town or fortress was conducted in the
following manner: A line of circumvallation was drawn round the place,
(Ezekiel 4:2; Micah 5:1) constructed out of the trees found in the
neighborhood, (20:20) together with earth and any other materials at
hand. This line not only cut off the besieged from the surrounding
country, but also served as a base of operations for the besiegers. The
next step was to throw out from this line one or more mounds or "banks"
in the direction of the city, (2 Samuel 20:15; 2 Kings 19:32; Isaiah
37:33) which were gradually increased in height until they were about
half as high as the city wall. On this mound or bank towers were
erected, (2 Kings 25:1; Jeremiah 52:4; Ezekiel 4:2; 17:17; 21:22; 26:8)
whence the slingers and archers might attack with effect. Catapults
were prepared for hurling large darts and stones; and the crow, a long
spar, with iron claws at one end and ropes at the other, to pull down
stones or men from the top of the wall. Battering-rams, (Ezekiel 4:2;
21:22) were brought up to the walls by means of the bank, and
scaling-ladders might also be placed on it. The treatment of the
conquered was extremely severe in ancient times. The bodies of the
soldiers killed in action were plundered, (1 Samuel 31:8) 2 Macc 8:27;
the survivors were either killed in some savage manner, (Judges 9:45; 2
Samuel 12:31; 2 Chronicles 25:12) mutilated, (Judges 9:45; 2 Samuel
12:31; 2 Chronicles 25:12) mutilated, (Judges 1:6; 1 Samuel 11:2) or
carried into captivity. (Numbers 31:26)
Washing
The Hands And FeetAs
knives and forks were not used in the East, in Scripture times, in
eating, it was necessary that the hand, which was thrust into the
common dish, should be scrupulously clean; and again, as sandals were
ineffectual against the dust and heat of the climate, washing the feet
on entering a house was an act both of respect to the company and of
refreshment to the traveller. The former of these usages was
transformed by the Pharisees of the New Testament age into a matter of
ritual observance, (Mark 7:3) and special rules were laid down as to
the time and manner of its performance. Washing the feet did not rise
to the dignity of a ritual observance except in connection with the
services of the sanctuary. (Exodus 30:19,21) It held a high place,
however, among the rites of hospitality. Immediately that a guest
presented himself at the tent door it was usual to offer the necessary
materials for washing the feet. (Genesis 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24;
Judges 19:21) It was a yet more complimentary act, betokening equally
humility and affection, if the host himself performed the office for
his guest. (1 Samuel 25:41; Luke 7:38,44; John 13:5-14; 1 Timothy 5:10)
Such a token of hospitality is still occasionally exhibited in the East.
Watches
Of NightThe
Jews, like the Greeks and Romans, divided the night into military
watches instead of hours, each watch representing the period for which
sentinels or pickets remained on duty. The proper Jewish reckoning
recognized only three such watches, entitled the first or "beginning of
the watches," (Lamentations 2:19) the middle watch, (Judges 7:19) and
the morning watch. (Exodus 14:24; 1 Samuel 11:11) These would last
respectively from sunset to 10 P.M.; from 10 P.M. to 2 A.M.; and from 2
A.M. to sunrise. After the establishment of the Roman supremacy, the
number of watches was increased to four, which were described either
according to their numerical order, as in the case of the "fourth
watch," (Matthew 14:25) or by the terms "even," "midnight,"
"cock-crowing" and "morning." (Mark 13:35) These terminated
respectively at 9 P.M., midnight, 3 A.M. and 6 A.M.
Water
Of Jealousy(Numbers
5:11-31) The ritual prescribed consisted in the husband's bringing
before the priest the woman suspected of infidelity, and the essential
part of it is unquestionably the oath to which the "water" was
subsidiary, symbolical and ministerial. With her he was to bring an
offering of barley meal. As she stood holding the offering, so the
priest stood holding till earthen vessel of holy water mixed with the
dust from the floor of the sanctuary, and, declaring her free from all
evil consequences if innocent, solemnly devoted her in the name of
Jehovah to be "a curse and an oath among her people" if guilty. He then
"wrote these curses in a book and blotted them out with the bitter
water." and having thrown the handful of meal on the altar, "caused the
woman to drink" the potion thus drugged, she moreover answering to the
words of his imprecation, "Amen, amen." Josephus adds, if the suspicion
was unfounded, she obtained conception; if true, she died infamously,
(This was entirely different from most trials of this kind, for the
bitter water the woman must drink was harmless in itself, and only by a
direct act of God could it injure her it guilty while in most heathen
trials the suspected party must take poison, or suffer that which only
a miracle would save them from if they were innocent.--ED.)
Water
Of Separation[[1282]Purification]
Wave
OfferingThis
rite, together with that of "heaving" or "raising" the offering was an
inseparable accompaniment of peace offerings. In such the right
shoulder, considered the choicest part of the victim, was to be
("heaved," and viewed as holy to the Lord, only eaten therefore by the
priest: the breast was to be "waved," and eaten by the worshipper. The
scriptural notices of these rites are to be found in (Exodus 29:24,28;
Leviticus 7:30,34; 8:27; 9:21; 10:14,15; 23:10,15,20; Numbers 6:20;
18:11,18,26-29) etc. In conjecturing the meaning of this rite, regard
must be had that it was the accompaniment of peace offerings, which
were witnesses to a ratified covenant--an established communion between
God and man.
Weapons[[1283]Arms,
Armor]
Weasel(choled)
occurs only in (Leviticus 11:29) in the list of unclean animals; but
the Hebrew word ought more probably to be translated "mole." Moles are
common in Palestine.
WeavingThe
art of weaving appears to be coeval with the first dawning of
civilization. We find it practiced with great skill by the Egyptians at
a very early period; The vestures of fine linen" such as Joseph wore,
(Genesis 41:42) were the product of Egyptian looms. The Israelites were
probably acquainted with the process before their sojourn in Egypt; but
it was undoubtedly there that they attained the proficiency which
enabled them to execute the hangings of the tabernacle, (Exodus 35:35;
1 Chronicles 4:21) and other artistic textures. The Egyptian loom was
usually upright, and the weaver stood at his work. The cloth was fixed
sometimes at the top, sometimes at the bottom. The modern Arabs use a
procumbent loom, raised above the ground by short legs. The textures
produced by the Jewish weavers were very various. The coarser kinds,
such tent-cloth, sack-cloth and the "hairy garments" of the poor, were
made goat's or camel's hair. (Exodus 26:7; Matthew 3:4) Wool was
extensively used for ordinary clothing, (Leviticus 13:47; Proverbs
27:26; 31:13; Ezekiel 27:18) while for finer work flax was used,
varying in quality, and producing the different textures described in
the Bible as "linen" and "fine linen." The mixture of wool and flax in
cloth intended for a garment was interdicted. (Leviticus 19:19; 22:11)
Wedding[[1284]Marriage]
WeekThere
can be no doubt about the great antiquity of measuring time by a period
of seven days. (Genesis 8:10; 29:27) The origin of this division of
time is a matter which has given birth to much speculation. Its
antiquity is so great its observance so widespread, and it occupies so
important a place in sacred things, that it must probably be thrown
back as far as the creation of man. The week and the Sabbath are thus
as old as man himself. A purely theological ground is thus established
for the week. They who embrace this view support it by a reference to
the six days' creation and the divine rest on the seventh. 1st. That
the week rests on a theological ground may be cheerfully acknowledged
by both sides; but nothing is determined by such acknowledgment as to
the original cause of adopting this division of time. Whether the week
gave its sacredness to the number seven, or whether the ascendancy of
that number helped to determine the dimensions of the week, it is
impossible to say. 2d. The weekly division was adopted by all the
Shemitic races, and, in the later period of their history at least, by
the Egyptians. On the other hand, there is no reason for thinking the
week known till a late period to either Greeks or Romans. So far from
the week being a division of time without ground in nature, there was
much to recommend its adoption. And further, the week is a most natural
and nearly an exact quadri-partition of the month, so that the quarters
of the moon may easily have suggested it. It is clear that if not in
Paul's time, yet very soon after, the whole Roman world had adopted the
hebdomadal division. Weeks, Feast of. [[1285]Pentecost]
Weights
And MeasuresA.
WEIGHTS.--The general principle of the present inquiry is to give the
evidence of the monuments the preference on all doubtful points. All
ancient Greek systems of weight were derived, either directly or
indirectly, from an eastern source. The older systems of ancient Greece
and Persia were the AEginetan, the Attic, the Babylonian and the Euboic.
+The AEginetan talent is stated to have contained 60 minae, 6000
drachme.
+The Attic talent is the standard weight introduced by Solon.
+The Babylonian talent may be determined from existing weights found
by. Mr. Layard at Nineveh. Pollux makes it equal to 7000 Attic drachms.
+The Euboic talent though bearing a Greek name, is rightly held to have
been originally an eastern system. The proportion of the Euboic talent
to the Babylonian was probably as 60 to 72, or 5 to
+Taking the Babylonian maneh at 7992 grs., we obtain 399,600 for the
Euboic talent. The principal if not the only Persian gold coin is the
daric, weighing about 129 grs.
+The Hebrew talent or talents and divisions. A talent of silver is
mentioned in Exodus, which contained 3000 shekels, distinguished as
"the holy shekel," or "shekel of the sanctuary." The gold talent
contained 100 manehs, 10,000 shekels. The silver talent contained 3000
shekels, 6000 bekas, 60,000 gerahs. The significations of the names of
the Hebrew weights must be here stated. The chief unit was the
[1286]Shekel (i.e. weight), called also the holy shekel or shekel of
the sanctuary ; subdivided into the beka (i.e. half) or half-shekel,
and the gerah (i.e. a grain or beka). The chief multiple, or higher
unit, was the kikkar (i.e. circle or globe, probably for an aggregate
sum), translated in our version, after the LXX., [1287]Talent; (i.e.
part, portion or number), a word used in Babylonian and in the Greek
hena or mina . (1) The relations of these weights, as usually: employed
for the standard of weighing silver, and their absolute values,
determined from the extant silver coins, and confirmed from other
sources, were as follows, in grains exactly and in avoirdupois weight
approximately: (2) For gold a different shekel was used, probably of
foreign introduction. Its value has been calculated at from 129 to 132
grains. The former value assimilates it to the Persian daric of the
Babylonian standard. The talent of this system was just double that of
the silver standard; if was divided into 100 manehs, and each maneh
into 100 shekels, as follows: (3) There appears to have been a third
standard for copper, namely, a shekel four times as heavy as the gold
shekel (or 528 grains), 1500 of which made up the copper talent of
792,000 grains. It seems to have been subdivided, in the coinage, into
halves (of 264 grains), quarters (of 132 grains) and sixths (of 88
grains). B. [1288]Measures.-- I. [1289]Measures OF LENGTH.--In the
Hebrew, as in every other system, these measures are of two classes:
length, in the ordinary sense, for objects whose size we wish to
determine, and distance, or itinerary measures, and the two are
connected by some definite relation, more or less simple, between their
units. The measures of the former class have been universally derived,
in the first instance, from the parts of the human body; but it is
remarkable that, in the Hebrew system, the only part used for this
purpose is the hand and fore-arm, to the exclusion of the foot, which
was the chief unit of the western nations. Hence arises the difficulty
of determining the ratio of the foot to the [1290]Cubit, (The Hebrew
word for the cubit (ammah) appears to have been of Egyptian origin, as
some of the measures of capacity (the hin and ephah) certainly were.)
which appears as the chief Oriental unit from the very building of
Noah's ark. (Genesis 6:15,16; 7:20) The Hebrew lesser measures were the
finger's breadth, (Jeremiah 52:21) only; the palm or handbreadth,
(Exodus 25:25; 1 Kings 7:26; 2 Chronicles 4:5) used metaphorically in
(Psalms 39:5) the span, i.e. the full stretch between the tips of the
thumb and the little finger. (Exodus 28:16; 1 Samuel 17:4; Ezekiel
43:13) and figuratively (Isaiah 40:12) The data for determining the
actual length of the Mosaic cubit involve peculiar difficulties, and
absolute certainty seems unattainable. The following, however, seem the
most probable conclusions: First, that three cubits were used in the
times of the Hebrew monarchy, namely : (1) The cubit of a man, (3:11)
or the common cubit of Canaan (in contradistinction to the Mosaic
cubit) of the Chaldean standard; (2) The old Mosaic or legal cubit, a
handbreadth larger than the first, and agreeing with the smaller
Egyptian cubit; (3) The new cubit, which was still larger, and agreed
with the larger Egyptian cubit, of about 20.8 inches, used in the
Nilometer. Second, that the ordinary cubit of the Bible did not come up
to the full length of the cubit of other countries. The reed (kaneh),
for measuring buildings (like the Roman decempeda), was to 6 cubits. It
occurs only in Ezekiel (Ezekiel 40:5-8; 41:8; 42:16-29) The values
given In the following table are to be accepted with reservation, for
want of greater certainty:
+Of measures of distance the smallest is the pace, and the largest the
day's journey . (a) The pace, (2 Samuel 6:13) whether it be a single,
like our pace, or double, like the Latin passus, is defined by nature
within certain limits, its usual length being about 30 inches for the
former and 5 feet for the latter. There is some reason to suppose that
even before the Roman measurement of the roads of Palestine, the Jews
had a mile of 1000 paces, alluded to in (Matthew 5:41) It is said to
have been single or double, according to the length of the pace; and
hence the peculiar force of our Lord's saying: "Whosoever shall compel
thee [as a courier] to go a mile, go with him twain"--put the most
liberal construction on the demand. (b) The day's journey was the most
usual method of calculating distances in travelling, (Genesis 30:36;
31:23; Exodus 3:18; 5:3; Numbers 10:33; 11:31; 33:8; 1:2; 1 Kings 19:4;
2 Kings 3:9; Jonah 3:3) 1 Macc. 5:24; 7:45; Tobit 6:1, though but one
instance of it occurs in the New Testament (Luke 2:44) The ordinary
day's journey among the Jews was 30 miles; but when they travelled in
companies, only ten miles. Neapolis formed the first stage out of
Jerusalem according to the former and Beeroth according to the latter
computation, (a) The Sabbath day's journey of 2000 cubits, (Acts 1:12)
is peculiar to the New Testament, and arose from a rabbinical
restriction. It was founded on a universal, application of the
prohibition given by Moses for a special occasion: "Let no man go out
of his place on the seventh day." (Exodus 16:29) An exception was
allowed for the purpose of worshipping at the tabernacle; and, as 2000
cubits was the prescribed space to be kept between the ark and the
people as well as the extent of the suburbs of the Levitical cities on
every side, (Numbers 35:5) this was taken for the length of a
Sabbath-day's journey measured front the wall of the city in which the
traveller lived. Computed from the value given above for the cubit, the
Sabbath-day's journey would be just six tenths of a mile . (d) After
the captivity the relations of the Jews to the Persians, Greeks and
Romans caused the use, probably, of the parasang, and certainly of the
stadium and the mile . Though the first is not mentioned in the Bible,
if is well to exhibit the ratios of the three. The universal Greek
standard, the stadium of 600 Greek feet, which was the length of the
race-course at Olympia, occurs first in the Maccabees, and is common in
the New Testament. Our version renders it furlong ; it being, in fact,
the eighth part of the Roman mile, as the furlong is of ours. 2 Macc.
11:5; 12:9,17,29; (Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Revelation 14:20;
21:18) One measure remains to be mentioned. The fathom, used in
sounding by the Alexandrian mariners in a voyage, is the Greek orguia,
i.e. the full stretch of the two arms from tip to tip of the middle
finger, which is about equal to the height, and in a man of full
stature is six feet. For estimating area, and especially land there is
no evidence that the Jews used any special system of square measures
but they were content to express by the cubit the length and breadth of
the surface to be measured (Numbers 35:4,5; Ezekiel 40:27) or by the
reed. (Ezekiel 41:8; 42:16-19; Revelation 21:16) II. [1291]Measures OF
CAPACITY.--
+The measures of capacity for liquids were: (a) The log, (Leviticus
14:10) etc. The name originally signifying basin . (b) The hin, a name
of Egyptian origin, frequently noticed in the Bible. (Exodus 29:40;
30:24; Numbers 15:4,7,8; Ezekiel 4:11) etc. (c) The bath, the name
meaning "measured," the largest of the liquid measures. (1 Kings
7:26,38; 2 Chronicles 2:10; Ezra 7:22; Isaiah 5:10)
+The dry measure contained the following denominations: (a) The cab,
mentioned only in (2 Kings 6:25) the name meaning literally hollow or
concave . (b) The omer, mentioned only in (Exodus 16:16-36) The word
implies a heap, and secondarily a sheaf. (c) The seah, or "measure,"
this being the etymological meaning of the term and appropriately
applied to it, inasmuch as it was the ordinary measure for household
purposes. (Genesis 18:6; 1 Samuel 25:18; 2 Kings 7:1,16) The Greek
equivalent occurs in (Matthew 13:33; Luke 13:21) (d) The ephah, a word
of Egyptian origin and frequent recurrence in the Bible. (Exodus 16:36;
Leviticus 5:11; 6:20; Numbers 5:15; 28:5; Judges 6:19; Ruth 2:17; 1
Samuel 1:24; 17:17; Ezekiel 45:11,13; 46:5,7,11,14) (e) The lethec, or
"half homer" literally meaning what is poured out; it occurs only in
(Hosea 3:2) (f) The homer, meaning heap. (Leviticus 27:16; Numbers
11:32; Isaiah 5:10; Ezekiel 45:13) It is elsewhere termed cor, from the
circular vessel in which it was measured. (1 Kings 4:22; 5:11; 2
Chronicles 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22; Ezekiel 45:14) The Greek equivalent
occurs in (Luke 16:7) The absolute values of the liquid and the dry
measures are stated differently by Josephus and the rabbinists, and as
we are unable to decide between them, we give a double estimate to the
various denominations. In the new Testament we have notices of the
following foreign measures: (a) The metretes, (John 2:6) Authorized
Version "firkin," for liquids. (b) The choenix, (Revelation 6:6)
Authorized Version "measure," for dry goods. (c) The xestec, applied,
however, not to the peculiar measure so named by the Greeks, but to any
small vessel, such as a cup. (Mark 7:4,8) Authorized Version "pot." (d)
The modius, similarly applied to describe any vessel of moderate
dimensions, (Matthew 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11:33) Authorized Version
"bushel," though properly meaning a Roman measure, amounting to about a
peck. The value of the Attic metretes was 8.6696 gallons, and
consequently the amount of liquid in six stone jars, containing on the
average 2 1/2 metretae each, would exceed 110 gallons. (John 2:6) Very
possibly, however, the Greek term represents the Hebrew bath ; and if
the bath be taken at the lowest estimate assigned to it, the amount
would be reduced to about 60 gallons. The choenix was 1-48th of an
Attic medimnus, and contained nearly a quart. It represented the amount
of corn for a day's food; and hence a choenix for a penny (or
denarius), which usually purchased a bushel (Cic. Verr. iii 81),
indicated a great scarcity. (Revelation 6:6)
WellWells
in Palestine are usually excavated from the solid limestone rock,
sometimes with steps to descend into them. (Genesis 24:16) The brims
are furnished with a curb or low wall of stone, bearing marks of high
antiquity in the furrows worn by the ropes used in drawing water. It
was on a curb of this sort that our Lord sat when he conversed with the
woman of Samaria, (John 4:6) and it was this, the usual stone cover,
which the woman placed on the mouth of the well at Bahurim, (2 Samuel
17:19) where the Authorized Version weakens the sense by omitting the
article. The usual methods for raising water are the following:
+The rope and bucket, or waterskin. (Genesis 24:14-20; John 4:11)
+The sakiyeh, or Persian wheel. This consists of a vertical wheel
furnished with a set of buckets or earthen jars attached to a cord
passing over the wheel. which descend empty and return full as the
wheel revolves.
+A modification of the last method, by which a man, sitting opposite to
a wheel furnished with buckets, turns it by drawing with his hands one
set of spokes prolonged beyond its circumference, and pushing another
set from him with his feet.
+A method very common in both ancient and modern Egypt is the shadoof,
a simple contrivance consisting of a lever moving on a pivot, which is
loaded at one end with a lump of clay or some other weight, and has at
the other a bowl or bucket. Wells are usually furnished with troughs of
wood or stone into which the water is emptied for the use of persons or
animals coming to the wells. Unless machinery is used, which is
commonly worked by men, women are usually the water-carriers.
WhaleAs
to the signification of the Hebrew terms tan and tannin, variously
rendered in the Authorized Version by "dragon," "whale," "serpent,"
"sea-monster" see [1292]Dragon. It remains for us in this article to
consider the transaction recorded in the book of Jonah, of that prophet
having been swallowed up by some great fish" which in (Matthew 12:40)
is called cetos (ketos), rendered in our version by "whale." In the
first glace, it is necessary to observe that the Greek word cetos, used
by St. Matthew is not restricted in its meaning to "a whale," or any
Cetacean ; like the Latin cete or cetus, it may denote any sea-monster,
either "a whale," Or "a shark," or "a seal," or "a tunny of enormous
size." Although two or three species of whale are found in the
Mediterranean Sea, yet the "great fish" that swallowed the prophet
cannot properly be identified with any Cetacean, for, although the
sperm whale has a gullet sufficiently large to admit the body of a man,
yet, it can hardly be the fish intended, as the natural food of
Cetaceans consists of small animals,such as medusae and crustacea. The
only fish, then, capable of swallowing a man would be a large specimen
of the white shark (Carcharias vulgaris), that dreaded enemy of
sailors, and the most voracious of the family of Squalidae . This
shark, which sometimes attains the length of thirty feet, is quite able
to swallow a man whole. The whole body of a man in armor has been found
in the stomach of a white shark: and Captain King, in his survey of
Australia, says he had caught one which could have swallowed a man with
the greatest ease. Blumenbach mentions that a whole horse has' been
found in a shark, and Captain Basil Hall reports the taking of one in
which, besides other things, he found the whole skin of a buffalo which
a short time before had been thrown overboard from his ship (p. 27).
The white shark is not uncommon in the Mediterranean.
Wheatthe
well-known valuable cereal, cultivated from the earliest times, is
first mentioned in ((Genesis 30:14) in the account of Jacob's sojourn
with Laban in Mesopotamia. Egypt in ancient times was celebrated for
the growth of its wheat; the best quality was all bearded; and the same
varieties existed in ancient as in modern times, among which may be
mentioned the seven-eared quality described in Pharaoh's dream.
(Genesis 41:22) Babylonia was also noted for the excellence of its
wheat and other cereals. Syria and Palestine produced wheat of fine
quality and in large quantities. (Psalms 81:16; 147:14) etc. There
appear to be two or three kinds of wheat at present grown in Palestine,
the Triticum vulgare, the T. spelta, and another variety of bearded
wheat which appears to be the same as the Egyptian kind, the T.
compositum . In the parable of the sower our Lord alludes to grains of
wheat which in good ground produce a hundred-fold. (Matthew 13:8) The
common Triticum vulgare will sometimes produce one hundred grains in
the ear. Wheat is reaped to ward the end of April, in May, and in June,
according to the differences of soil and position; it was sown either
broadcast and then ploughed in or trampled in by cattle, (Isaiah 32:20)
or in rows, if we rightly understand (Isaiah 28:25) which seems to
imply that the seeds were planted apart in order to insure larger and
fuller ears. The wheat was put into the ground in the winter, and some
time after the barley; in the Egyptian plague of hail, consequently,
the barley suffered, but the wheat had not appeared, and so escaped
injury.
WidowUnder
the Mosaic dispensation no legal provision was made for the maintenance
of widows. They were left dependent partly on the affection of
relations, more especially of the eldest son, whose birthright, or
extra share of the property, imposed such a duty upon him, and partly
on the privileges accorded to other distressed classes, such as a
participation in the triennial third tithe, (14:29; 26:12) in leasing,
(24:19-21) and in religious feasts. (16:11,14) With regard to the
remarriage of widows, the only restriction imposed by the Mosaic law
had reference to the contingency of one being left childless in which
case the brother of the deceased husband had a right to marry the
widow. (25:5,6; Matthew 22:23-30) In the apostolic Church the widows
were sustained at the public expense, the relief being daily
administered in kind, under the superintendence of officers appointed
for this special purpose, (Acts 6:1-6) Particular directions are given
by St.Paul as to the class of persons entitled to such public
maintenance. (1 Timothy 5:3-16) Out of the body of such widows a
certain number were to be enrolled, the qualifications for such
enrollment being that they were not under sixty years of age; that they
had been "the wife of one man," probably meaning but once married ; and
that they had led useful and charitable lives. vs. (1 Timothy 5:9,10)
We are not disposed to identify the widows of the Bible either with the
deaconesses or with the presbutides Of the early Church. The order of
widows existed as a separate institution, contemporaneously with these
offices, apparently for the same eleemosynary purpose for which it was
originally instituted.
Wife[[1293]Marriage]
Wilderness
Of The Wandering(The
region in which the Israelites spent nearly 38 years of their existence
after they had left Egypt, and spent a year before Mount Sinai. They
went as far as Kadesh, on the southernmost border of Palestine, from
which place spies were sent up into the promised land. These returned
with such a report of the inhabitants and their walled cities that the
people were discouraged, and began to murmur and rebel. For their sin
they were compelled to remain 38 years longer in the wilderness,
because it showed that they were not yet prepared and trained to
conquer and to hold their promised possessions. The wilderness of the
wandering was the great central limestone plateau of the sinaitic
peninsula. It was bordered on the east by the valley of the Arabah,
which runs from the Dead Sea to the head of the eastern branch of the
Red Sea. On the south and south west were the granite mountains of
Sinai and on the north the Mediterranean Sea and the mountainous region
south of Judea. It is called the Desert of Paran, and Badiet et-Tih,
which means "Desert of the Wandering." The children of Israel were not
probably marching as a nation from place to place in this wilder new
during these 38 years, but they probably had a kind of headquarters at
Kadesh, and were "compelled to linger on as do the Bedouin Arabs of the
present day, in a half-savage, homeless state, moving about from place
to place, and pitching their tents wherever they could find pasture for
their flocks and herds."--E.H. Palmer. Toward the close of the forty
years from Egypt they again assembled at Kadesh, and, once more under
the leadership of the Shechinah, they marched down the Arabah on their
way to the promised land.--ED.)
Willowsare
mentioned in (Leviticus 23:40; Job 40:22; Psalms 137:2; Isaiah 44:4)
With respect to the tree upon which the captive Israelites hung their
harps, there can be no doubt that the weeping willow Salix babylonica,
is intended. This tree grows abundantly on the banks of the Euphrates,
in other parts of Asia as in Palestine. The Hebrew word translated
willows is generic, and includes several species of the large family of
Salices, which is well represented in Palestine and the Bible lands,
such as the Salix alba, S. viminalis (osier), S. aegyptiaca .
Willows,
The Brook Of Thea
wady mentioned by Isaiah, (Isaiah 15:7) in his dirge over Moab. It is
situated on the southern boundary of Moab, and is now called Wady
el-Aksa.
WillsUnder
a system of close inheritance like that of the Jews, the scope forbid
bequest in respect of land was limited by the right of redemption and
general re-entry in the jubilee year; but the law does not forbid
bequests by will of such limited interest in land as was consistent
with those rights. The case of houses in walled towns was different,
and there can be no doubt that they must, in fact, have frequently been
bequeathed by will, (Leviticus 25:30) Two instances are recorded in the
Old Testament under the law of the testamentary disposition, (1)
effected in the case of Ahithophel, (2 Samuel 17:23) (2) recommended in
the case of Hezekiah. (2 Kings 20:1; Isaiah 38:1) [[1294]Heir]
Wimplean
old English word for hood or veil, used in the Authorized Version of
(Isaiah 3:22) The same Hebrew word is translated "veil" in (Ruth 3:15)
but it signifies rather a kind of shawl of mantle.
WindowThe
window of an Oriental house consists generally of an aperture closed in
with lattice-work. (Judges 5:28; Proverbs 7:6) Authorized Version
"casement;" (Ecclesiastes 12:3) Authorized Version "window;" (Song of
Solomon 2:9; Hosea 13:3) Authorized Version "chimney." Glass has been
introduced into Egypt in modern times as a protection against the cold
of winter, but lattice-work is still the usual, and with the poor the
only, contrivance for closing the window. The windows generally look
into the inner court of the house, but in every house one or more look
into the street. In Egypt these outer windows generally project over
the doorway. [[1295]House]
WindsThat
the Hebrews recognized the existence of four prevailing winds as
issuing, broadly speaking, from the four cardinal points, north, south,
east and west, may be inferred from their custom of using the
expression "four winds" as equivalent to the "four quarters" of the
hemisphere. (Ezekiel 37:9; Daniel 8:8; Zechariah 2:6; Matthew 24:31)
The north wind, or, as it was usually called "the north," was naturally
the coldest of the four, Ecclus. 43:20 and its presence is hence
invoked as favorable to vegetation in (Song of Solomon 4:16) It is
described in (Proverbs 25:23) as bringing rain; in this case we must
understand the northwest wind. The northwest wind prevails from the
autumnal equinox to the beginning of November, and the north wind from
June to the equinox. The east wind crosses the sandy wastes of Arabia
Deserts before reaching Palestine and was hence termed "the wind of the
wilderness." (Job 1:19; Jeremiah 13:14) It blows with violence, and is
hence supposed to be used generally for any violent wind. (Job 27:21;
38:24; Psalms 48:7; Isaiah 27:8; Ezekiel 27:26) In Palestine the east
wind prevails from February to June. The south wind, which traverses
the Arabian peninsula before reaching Palestine, must necessarily be
extremely hot. (Job 37:17; Luke 12:55) The west and southwest winds
reach Palestine loaded with moisture gathered from the Mediterranean,
and are hence expressly termed by the Arabs "the fathers of the rain."
Westerly winds prevail in Palestine from November to February. In
addition to the four regular winds, we have notice in the Bible of the
local squalls, (Mark 4:37; Luke 8:23) to which the Sea of Gennesareth
was liable. In the narrative of St. Paul's voyage we meet with the
Greek term Lips to describe the southwest wind; the Latin Carus or
Caurus, the northwest wind (Acts 27:12) and Euroclydon, a wind of a
very violent character coming from east-northeast. (Acts 27:14)
WineThe
manufacture of wine is carried back in the Bible to the age of Noah,
(Genesis 9:20,21) to whom the discovery of the process is apparently,
though not explicitly, attributed. The natural history and culture of
the vine are described under a separate head. [[1296]Vine] The only
other plant whose fruit is noticed as having been converted into wine
was the pomegranate. (Song of Solomon 8:2) In Palestine the vintage
takes place in September, and is celebrated with great rejoicing. The
ripe fruit was gathered in baskets, (Jeremiah 6:9) as represented in
Egyptian paintings, and was carried to the wine-press. It was then
placed in the upper one of the two vats or receptacles of which the
winepress was formed, and was subjected to the process of "treading,"
which has prevailed in all ages in Oriental and south European
countries. (Nehemiah 13:15; Job 24:11; Isaiah 18:10; Jeremiah 25:30;
48:33; Amos 9:13; Revelation 19:15) A certain amount of juice exuded
front the ripe fruit from its own pressure before treading commenced.
This appears to have been kept separate from the rest of the juice, and
to have formed the "sweet wine" noticed in (Acts 2:13) [See below] The
"treading" was effected by one or more men, according to the size of
the vat. They encouraged one another by shouts. (Isaiah 16:9,10;
Jeremiah 25:30; 48:33) Their legs and garments were dyed red with the
juice. (Genesis 40:11; Isaiah 63:2,3) The expressed juice escaped by an
aperture into the lower vat, or was at once collected in vessels. A
hand-press was occasionally used in Egypt, but we have no notice of
such an instrument in the Bible. As to the subsequent treatment of the
wine we have but little information. Sometimes it was preserved in its
unfermented state and drunk as must, but more generally it was bottled
off after fermentation and if it were designed to be kept for some time
a certain amount of lees was added to give it body. (Isaiah 25:6) The
wine consequently required to be "refined" or strained previous to
being brought to table. (Isaiah 25:6) To wine, is attributed the
"darkly-flashing eye," (Genesis 40:12) Authorized Version "red," the
unbridled tongue, (Proverbs 20:1; Isaiah 28:7) the excitement of the
spirit, (Proverbs 31:6; Isaiah 5:11; Zechariah 9:15; 10:7) the
enchained affections of its votaries, (Hosea 4:11) the perverted
judgment, (Proverbs 31:5; Isaiah 28:7) the indecent exposure, (Habakkuk
2:15,16) and the sickness resulting from the heat (chemah, Authorized
Version "bottles") of wine. (Hosea 7:5) The allusions to the effects of
tirosh are confined to a single passage, but this a most decisive one,
viz. (Hosea 4:11) "Whoredom and wine (yayin) and new wine (tirosh) take
away the heart," where tirosh appears as the climax of engrossing
influences, in immediate connection with yayin . It has been disputed
whether the Hebrew wine was fermented; but the impression produced on
the mind by a general review of the above notices is that the Hebrew
words indicating wine refer to fermented, intoxicating wine. The
notices of fermentation are not very decisive. A certain amount of
fermentation is implied in the distension of the leather bottles when
new wine was placed in them, and which was liable to burst old bottles.
It is very likely that new wine was preserved in the state of must by
placing it in jars or bottles and then burying it in the earth. The
mingling that we read of in conjunction with wine may have been
designed either to increase or to diminish the strength of the wine,
according as spices or water formed the ingredient that was added. The
notices chiefly favor the former view; for mingled liquor was prepared
for high festivals, (Proverbs 9:2,5) and occasions of excess. (Proverbs
23:30; Isaiah 5:22) At the same time strength was not the sole object
sought; the wine "mingled with myrrh," given to Jesus, was designed to
deaden pain, (Mark 15:23) and the spiced pomegranate wine prepared by
the bride, (Song of Solomon 8:2) may well have been of a mild
character. In the New Testament the character of the "sweet wine,"
noticed in (Acts 2:13) calls for some little remark. It could not be
new wine in the proper sense of the term, inasmuch as about eight
months must have elapsed between the vintage and the feast of
Pentecost. The explanations of the ancient lexicographers rather lead
us to infer that its luscious qualities were due, not to its being
recently made, but to its being produced from the very purest juice of
the grape. There can be little doubt that the wines of palestine varied
in quality, and were named after the localities in which they were
made. The only wines of which we have special notice belonged to Syria
these were the wine of Helbon (Ezekiel 27:18) and the wine of Lebanon,
famed for its aroma. (Hosea 14:7) With regard to the uses of wine in
private life there is little to remark. It was produced on occasions of
ordinary hospitality, (Genesis 14:18) and at festivals, such as
marriages. (John 2:3) Under the Mosaic law wine formed the usual drink
offering that accompanied the daily sacrifice, (Exodus 29:40) the
presentation of the first-fruits, (Leviticus 23:13) and other
offerings. (Numbers 15:5) Tithe was to be paid of wine, as of other
products. The priest was also to receive first-fruits of wine, as of
other articles. (18:4) comp. (Exodus 22:29) The use of wine at the
paschal feast was not enjoined by the law, but had become an
established custom, at all events in the post-Babylonian period. The
wine was mixed with warm water on these occasions. Hence in the early
Christian Church it was usual to mix the sacramental wine with water.
(The simple wines of antiquity were incomparably less deadly than the
stupefying and ardent beverages of our western nations. The wines of
antiquity were more like sirups; many of them were not intoxicant; many
more intoxicant in a small degree; and all of them, as a rule, taken
only when largely diluted with water. They contained, even undiluted,
but 4 or 5 percent of alcohol.--Cannon Farrar.)
WinepressFrom
the scanty notices contained in the Bible we gather that, the
wine-presses of the Jews consisted of two receptacles of vats placed at
different elevations, in the upper one of which the grapes were
trodden, while the lower one received the expressed juice. The two vats
are mentioned together only in (Joel 3:13) "The press is full: the fats
overflow"--the upper vat being full of fruit, the lower one overflowing
with the must. [[1297]Wine] The two vats were usually hewn out of the
solid rock. (Isaiah 5:2) margin; (Matthew 21:33) Ancient winepresses,
so constructed, are still to he seen in Palestine.
Winnowing[[1298]Agriculture]
Wisdom
Of Jesus, Son Of Sirach[[1299]Ecclesiasticus]
Wisdom,
The, Of Solomona,
book of the Apocrypha, may be divided into two parts, the first, chs.
1-9, containing the doctrine of wisdom in its moral and intellectual
aspects: the second, the doctrine of wisdom as shown in history. chs.
10-19. The first part contains the praise of wisdom as the source of
immortality, in contrast with the teaching of sensualists; and next the
praise of wisdom as the guide of practical and intellectual life, the
stay of princes, and the interpreter of the universe. The second part,
again, follows the action of wisdom summarily, as preserving God's
servants, from Adam to Moses, and more particularly in the punishment
of the Egyptians and Canaanites. Style and language .--The literary
character of the book is most remarkable and interesting. In the
richness and freedom of its vocabulary it most closely resembles the
Fourth Book of Maccabees, but it is superior to that fine declamation
in both power and variety of diction. The magnificent description of
wisdom ch. 7:22-8:1, must rank among the noblest passages of human
eloquence, and it would be perhaps impossible to point out any piece of
equal length in the remains of classical antiquity more pregnant with
noble thought or more rich in expressive phraseology. Doctrinal
character.--The theological teaching of the book offers, in many
respects, the nearest approach to the language and doctrines of Greek
philosophy that is found in any Jewish writing up to the time of Philo.
There is much in the views which it gives of the world of man and of
the divine nature which springs rather from the combination or conflict
of Hebrew and Greek thought than from the independent development of
Hebrew thought alone. The conception is presented of the body as a mere
weight and clog to the soul. ch, 9:15; contrast (2 Corinthians 5:1-4)
There is, on the other hand no trace of the characteristic Christian
doctrine of a resurrection of the body. The identification of the
tempter, (Genesis 3:1) ... directly or indirectly with the devil, as
the bringer "of death into the world" ch. 2:23, 24, is the most
remarkable development of biblical doctrine which the book contains.
Generally, too, it may be observed that, as in the cognate books,
Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, there are few traces of the recognition of
the sinfulness even of the wise man in his wisdom, which forms in the
Psalms and the prophets, the basis of the Christian doctrine of the
atonement: yet comp. (Genesis 15:2) In connection with the Old
Testament Scriptures, the book, as a whole, may be regarded as carrying
on one step farther the great problem of life contained in Ecclesiastes
and Job. Date.--From internal evidence it seems most reasonable to
believe that the work was composed in Greek at Alexandria some time
before the time of Philo-about 120-80 B.C. It seems impossible to study
this book dispassionately and not feel that it forms one of the last
links in the chain of providential connection between the Old and New
Covenants. It would not be easy to find elsewhere any pre-Christian
view of religion equally wide, sustained and definite.
Wise
Men[[1300]Magi]
Witch,
Witchcrafts[[1301]Divination;
[1302]Magic, Magicians]
WitnessAmong
people with whom writing is not common the evidence of a transaction is
given by some tangible memorial or significant ceremony: Abraham gave
seven ewe-lambs to Abimelech as an evidence of his property in the well
of Beersheba. Jacob raised a heap of stones, "the heap of witness." as
a boundary-mark between himself and Laban. (Genesis 21:30; 31:47,52)
The tribes of Reuben and Gad raised an "altar" as a witness to the
covenant between themselves and the rest of the nation. Joshua set up a
stone as an evidence of the allegiance promised by Israel to God.
(Joshua 22:10,26,34; 24:26,27) But written evidence was by no means
unknown to the Jews. Divorce was to be proved by a written document.
(24:1,3) In civil contracts, at least in later times documentary
evidence was required and carefully preserved. (Isaiah 8:16; Jeremiah
32:10-16) On the whole the law was very careful to provide and enforce
evidence for all its infractions and all transactions bearing on them.
Among special provisions with respect to evidence are the following:
+Two witnesses at least are required to establish any charge. (Numbers
35:30; 17:6; John 8:17; 2 Corinthians 13:1) comp. 1Tim 5:19
+In the case of the suspected wife, evidence besides the husband's was
desired. (Numbers 5:13)
+The witness who withheld the truth was censured. (Leviticus 5:1)
+False witness was punished with the penalty due to the offence which
it sought to establish.
+Slanderous reports and officious witness are discouraged. (Exodus
20:16; 23:1; Leviticus 18:16,18) etc.
+The witnesses were the first executioners. (15:9; 17:7; Acts 7:58)
+In case of an animal left in charge and torn by wild beasts, the
keeper was to bring the carcass in proof of the fact and disproof of
his own criminality. (Exodus 22:13)
+According to Josephus, women and slaves were not admitted to bear
testimony. In the New Testament the original notion of a witness is
exhibited in the special form of one who attests his belief in the
gospel by personal suffering. Hence it is that the use of the
ecclesiastical term ("martyr." the Greek word for "witness," has arisen.
Wizard[[1303]Divination;
[1304]Magic, Magicians]
WolfThere
can be little doubt that the wolf of Palestine is the common Canis
lupus, and that this is the animal so frequently mentioned in the
Bible. (The wolf is a fierce animal of the same species as the dog,
which it resembles. The common color is gray with a tinting of fawn,
and the hair is long and black. The Syrian wolf is of lighter color
than the wolf of Europe it is the dread of the shepherds of
Palestine.--ED.) Wolves were doubtless far more common in biblical
times than they are now, though they are occasionally seen by modern
travellers. The following are the scriptural allusions to the wolf: Its
ferocity is mentioned in (Genesis 49:27; Ezekiel 22:27); Habb 1:8; Matt
7:15 Its nocturnal habits, in (Jeremiah 5:6; Zephaniah 3:3); Habb 1:8
Its attacking sheep and lambs, (Matthew 10:16; Luke 10:3; John 10:12)
Isaiah (Isaiah 11:6; 65:25) foretells the peaceful reign of the Messiah
under the metaphor of a wolf dwelling with a lamb: cruel persecutors
are compared with wolves. (Matthew 10:16; Acts 20:29)
WomenThe
position of women in the Hebrew commonwealth contrasts favorably with
that which in the present day is assigned to them generally in eastern
countries. The most salient point of contrast in the usages of ancient
as compared with modern Oriental society was the large amount of
liberty enjoyed by women. Instead of being immured in a harem, or
appearing in public with the face covered. The wives and maidens of
ancient times mingled freely and openly with the other sex in the
duties and amenities of ordinary life. Rebekah travelled on a camel
with her face unveiled until she came into the presence of her
affianced. (Genesis 24:64,65) Jacob saluted Rachel with a kiss in the
presence of the shepherds. (Genesis 29:11) Women played no
inconsiderable part in public celebrations (Exodus 15:20,21; Judges
11:34) The odes of Deborah, Judg 5, and of Hannah, (1 Samuel 2:1) etc.,
exhibit a degree of intellectual cultivation which is in itself a proof
of the position of the sex in that period. Women also occasionally held
public office, particularly that of prophetess or inspired teacher.
(Exodus 15:20; Judges 4:4; 2 Kings 22:14; Nehemiah 6:14; Luke 2:36) The
management of household affairs devolved mainly on the women. The value
of a virtuous and active housewife forms a frequent topic in the book
of Proverbs. ch. (Proverbs 11:16; 12:4; 14:1; 31:10) etc. Her influence
was of course proportionably great.
Wood[[1305]Forest]
Woolwas
an article of the highest value among the Jews, as the staple material
for the manufacture of clothing. (Leviticus 13:47; 22:11; Job 31:20;
Proverbs 31:13; Ezekiel 34:3; Hosea 2:5) The importance of wool is
incidentally shown by the notice that Mesha's tribute was paid in a
certain number of rams "with the wool." (2 Kings 3:1) The wool of
Damascus was highly prized in the mart of Tyre. (Ezekiel 27:18)
Wormthe
representative in the Authorized Version of several Hebrew words. Sas,
which occurs in (Isaiah 51:18) probably denotes some particular species
of moth, whose larva is injurious to wool. Rimmah, (Exodus 16:20)
points evidently to various kinds of maggots and the larvae of insects
which feed on putrefying animal matter, rather than to earthworms.
Toleah is applied in (28:39) to some kinds of larvae destructive to the
vines. In (Job 19:26; 21:26; 24:20) there is an allusion to worms
(insect larvae) feeding on the dead bodies of the buried. There is the
same allusion in (Isaiah 66:24) which words are applied by our Lord,
(Mark 9:44,46,48) metaphorically to the torments of the guilty in the
world of departed spirits. The valley of Hinnom near Jerusalem, where
the filth of the city was cast, was alive with worms. The death of
Herod Agrippa I, was caused by worms. (Acts 12:23)
WormwoodFour
kinds of wormwood are found in Palestine-- Artemisia nilotica, A.
Judaica, A. fructicosa and A. cinerea . The word occurs frequently in
the Bible, and generally in a metaphorical sense. In (Jeremiah 9:15;
23:15; Lamentations 3:15,19) wormwood is symbolical of bitter calamity
and sorrow; unrighteous judges are said to "turn judgment to wormwood."
(Amos 5:7) The Orientals typified sorrows, cruelties and calamities of
any kind by plants of a poisonous or bitter nature.
Worshippera
translation of the Greek word neocoros, used once only, (Acts 19:35) in
the margin, "temple-keeper." The neocoros was originally an attendant
in a temple probably intrusted with its charge. The term neocoros
became thus applied to cities or communities which undertook the
worship of particular emperors even during their lives. The first
occurrence of the term in connection with Ephesus is on coins of the
age of Nero, A.D. 54-68.
Wrestling[[1306]Games]
WritingThere
is no account in the Bible of the origin of writing. That the Egyptians
in the time of Joseph were acquainted with writing of a certain kind
there is evidence to prove, but there is nothing to show that up to
this period the knowledge extended to the Hebrew family. At the same
time there is no evidence against it. Writing is first distinctly
mentioned in (Exodus 17:14) and the connection clearly implies that it
was not then employed for the first time but was so familiar as to be
used for historic records. It is not absolutely necessary to infer from
this that the art of writing was an accomplishment possessed by every
Hebrew citizen. If we examine the instances in which writing is
mentioned in connection with individuals, we shall find that in all
cases the writers were men of superior position. In (Isaiah 29:11,12)
there is clearly a distinction drawn between the man who was able to
read and the man who was not, and it seems a natural inference that the
accomplishments of reading and writing were not widely spread among the
people, when we find that they are universally attributed to those of
high rank or education-kings, priests, prophets and professional
scribes. In the name Kirjathsepher (book-town), (Joshua 15:15) there is
an indication of a knowledge of writing among the Phoenicians. The
Hebrews, then, a branch of the great Semitic family, being in
possession of the art of writing, according to their own historical
records, at a very early period, the further questions arise, what
character they made use of, and whence they obtained it. Recent
investigations have shown that the square Hebrew character is of
comparatively modern date, and has been formed from a more ancient type
by a gradual process of development. What then was this ancient type?
Most probably the Phoenician. Pliny was of opinion that letters were of
Assyrian origin. Dioderus Siculus (v. 74) says that the Syrians
invented letters, and from them the Phoenicians, having learned them
transferred them to the Greeks. According to Tacitus (Ann. xi. 14,,
Egypt was believed to be the source whence the Phoenicians got their
knowledge. Be this as it may, to the Phoenicians, the daring seamen and
adventurous colonizers of the ancient world the voice of tradition has
assigned the honor of the invention of letters. Whether it came to them
from an Aramean or an Egyptian source can at best he but the subject of
conjecture. It may, however, be reasonably inferred that the ancient
Hebrews derived from or shared with the Phoenicians the knowledge of
writing and the use of letters. The names of the Hebrew letters
indicate that they must have been the invention of a Shemitic people,
and that they were moreover a pastoral people may be inferred from the
same evidence. But whether or not the Phoenicians were the inventors of
the Shemitic alphabet, there can be no doubt of their just claim to
being its chief disseminators; and with this understanding we may
accept the genealogy of alphabets as given by Gesenius, and exhibited
in the accompanying table. The old Semitic alphabets may he divided
into two principal classes:
+The Phoenician as it exists in the inscriptions in Cyprus, Malta,
Carpentras, and the coins of Phoenicia and her colonies. From it are
derived the Samaritan and the Greek character.
+The Hebrew-Chaldee character; to which belong the Hebrew square
character; the which has some traces of a cursive hand; the Estrangelo,
or ancient Syriac; and the ancient Arabic or Cufic. It was probably
about the first or second century after Christ that the square
character assumed its present form; though in a question involved in so
much uncertainty it is impossible to pronounce with great positiveness.
The alphabet .--The oldest evidence on the subject of the Hebrew
alphabet is derived from the alphabetical psalms and poems: Psal
25,34,37,111,112,119,145; (Proverbs 31:10-31; Lamentations 1:1-4) From
these we ascertain that the number of the letters was twenty-two, as at
present. The Arabic alphabet originally consisted of the same number.
It has been argued by many that the alphabet of the Phoenicians at
first consisted of only sixteen letters. The legend, as told by Pliny
(vii. 56), is as follows; Cadmus brought with him into Greece sixteen
letters; at the time of the Trojan war Palamedes added four others,
theta, epsilon, phi, chi, and Simonides of Melos four more dzeta, eta,
psi, omega. Divisions of words.--Hebrew was originally written, like
most ancient languages, without any divisions between the words. The
same is the case with the Phoenician inscriptions, The various readings
in the LXX. show that, at the version was made, in the Hebrew MSS.
which the translators used the words were written in a continuous
series. The modern synagogue rolls and the MSS. of the Samaritan
Pentateuch have no vowel-points, but the words are divided, and the
Samaritan in this respect differs hut little from the Hebrew. Writing
materials, etc.--The oldest documents which contain the writing of a
Semitic race are probably the bricks of Nineveh and Babylon, on which
are impressed the cuneiform Syrian inscriptions. There is, however, no
evidence that they were ever used by the Hebrews. It is highly probable
that the ancient as well as the most common material which the Hebrews
used for writing was dressed skin in some form or other. We know that
the dressing of skins was practiced by the Hebrews, (Exodus 25:5;
Leviticus 13:48) and they may have acquired the knowledge of the art
from the Egyptians, among whom if had attained great perfection, the
leather-cutters constituting one of the principal subdivisions of the
third caste. Perhaps the Hebrews may have borrowed among their either
acquirements, the use of papyrus from the Egyptians, but of this we
have no positive evidence. In the Bible the only allusions to the use
of papyrus are in (2 John 1:12) where chartes (Authorized Version
"paper") occurs, which refers especially to papyrus paper, and 3 Macc.
4:20, where charteria is found in the same sense. Herodotus, after
telling us that the Ionians learned the art of writing from the
Phoenicians, adds that they called their books skins, because they made
use of sheep-skins and goat-skins when short of paper. Parchment was
used for the MSS. of the Pentateuch in the time of Josephus, and the
membranae of (2 Timothy 4:13) were skins of parchment. It was one of
the provisions in the Talmud that the law should be written on the
skins of clean animals, tame or wild, or even of clean birds. The skins
when written upon were formed into rolls (megilloth). (Psalms 40:7)
comp. Isai 34:4; Jere 36:14; Ezek 2:9; Zech 5:1 They were rolled upon
one or two sticks and fastened with a thread, the ends of which were
sealed. (Isaiah 29:11; Daniel 12:4; Revelation 5:1) etc. The rolls were
generally written on one side only, except in (Ezekiel 2:9; Revelation
5:1) They were divided into columns (Authorized Version "leaves,")
(Jeremiah 36:23) the upper margin was to be not less than three fingers
broad, the lower not less than four; and a space of two fingers breadth
was to be left between every two columns. But besides skins, which were
used for the more permanent kinds of writing, tablets of wood covered
with wax, (Luke 11:63) served for the ordinary purposes of life.
Several of these were fastened together and formed volumes. They were
written upon with a pointed style, (Job 19:24) sometimes of iron.
(Psalms 45:1; Jeremiah 8:8; 17:1) For harder materials a graver,
(Exodus 32:4; Isaiah 8:1) was employed. For parchment or skins a reed
was used. (3 John 1:13) 3 Macc. 5:20. The ink, (Jeremiah 36:18)
literally "black," like the Greek melan, (2 Corinthians 3:3; 2 John
1:12; 3 John 1:13) was of lampblack dissolved in gall-juice. It was
carried in an inkstand which was suspended at the girdle, (Ezekiel
9:2,3) as is done at the present day in the East. To professional
scribes there are allusions in (Ezra 7:8; Psalms 45:1) 2 Esdr. 14:24.